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  • 1 cocoa powder, not containing added sugar or other sweetening matter

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > cocoa powder, not containing added sugar or other sweetening matter

  • 2 какао-порошок без добавок сахара или других подслащивающих веществ

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > какао-порошок без добавок сахара или других подслащивающих веществ

  • 3 Cartwright, Revd Edmund

    [br]
    b. 24 April 1743 Marnham, Nottingham, England
    d. 30 October 1823 Hastings, Sussex, England
    [br]
    English inventor of the power loom, a combing machine and machines for making ropes, bread and bricks as well as agricultural improvements.
    [br]
    Edmund Cartwright, the fourth son of William Cartwright, was educated at Wakefield Grammar School, and went to University College, Oxford, at the age of 14. By special act of convocation in 1764, he was elected Fellow of Magdalen College. He married Alice Whitaker in 1772 and soon after was given the ecclesiastical living of Brampton in Derbyshire. In 1779 he was presented with the living of Goadby, Marwood, Leicestershire, where he wrote poems, reviewed new works, and began agricultural experiments. A visit to Matlock in the summer of 1784 introduced him to the inventions of Richard Arkwright and he asked why weaving could not be mechanized in a similar manner to spinning. This began a remarkable career of inventions.
    Cartwright returned home and built a loom which required two strong men to operate it. This was the first attempt in England to develop a power loom. It had a vertical warp, the reed fell with the weight of at least half a hundredweight and, to quote Gartwright's own words, "the springs which threw the shuttle were strong enough to throw a Congreive [sic] rocket" (Strickland 19.71:8—for background to the "rocket" comparison, see Congreve, Sir William). Nevertheless, it had the same three basics of weaving that still remain today in modern power looms: shedding or dividing the warp; picking or projecting the shuttle with the weft; and beating that pick of weft into place with a reed. This loom he proudly patented in 1785, and then he went to look at hand looms and was surprised to see how simply they operated. Further improvements to his own loom, covered by two more patents in 1786 and 1787, produced a machine with the more conventional horizontal layout that showed promise; however, the Manchester merchants whom he visited were not interested. He patented more improvements in 1788 as a result of the experience gained in 1786 through establishing a factory at Doncaster with power looms worked by a bull that were the ancestors of modern ones. Twenty-four looms driven by steam-power were installed in Manchester in 1791, but the mill was burned down and no one repeated the experiment. The Doncaster mill was sold in 1793, Cartwright having lost £30,000, However, in 1809 Parliament voted him £10,000 because his looms were then coming into general use.
    In 1789 he began working on a wool-combing machine which he patented in 1790, with further improvements in 1792. This seems to have been the earliest instance of mechanized combing. It used a circular revolving comb from which the long fibres or "top" were. carried off into a can, and a smaller cylinder-comb for teasing out short fibres or "noils", which were taken off by hand. Its output equalled that of twenty hand combers, but it was only relatively successful. It was employed in various Leicestershire and Yorkshire mills, but infringements were frequent and costly to resist. The patent was prolonged for fourteen years after 1801, but even then Cartwright did not make any profit. His 1792 patent also included a machine to make ropes with the outstanding and basic invention of the "cordelier" which he communicated to his friends, including Robert Fulton, but again it brought little financial benefit. As a result of these problems and the lack of remuneration for his inventions, Cartwright moved to London in 1796 and for a time lived in a house built with geometrical bricks of his own design.
    Other inventions followed fast, including a tread-wheel for cranes, metallic packing for pistons in steam-engines, and bread-making and brick-making machines, to mention but a few. He had already returned to agricultural improvements and he put forward suggestions in 1793 for a reaping machine. In 1801 he received a prize from the Board of Agriculture for an essay on husbandry, which was followed in 1803 by a silver medal for the invention of a three-furrow plough and in 1805 by a gold medal for his essay on manures. From 1801 to 1807 he ran an experimental farm on the Duke of Bedford's estates at Woburn.
    From 1786 until his death he was a prebendary of Lincoln. In about 1810 he bought a small farm at Hollanden near Sevenoaks, Kent, where he continued his inventions, both agricultural and general. Inventing to the last, he died at Hastings and was buried in Battle church.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Board of Agriculture Prize 1801 (for an essay on agriculture). Society of Arts, Silver Medal 1803 (for his three-furrow plough); Gold Medal 1805 (for an essay on agricultural improvements).
    Bibliography
    1785. British patent no. 1,270 (power loom).
    1786. British patent no. 1,565 (improved power loom). 1787. British patent no. 1,616 (improved power loom).
    1788. British patent no. 1,676 (improved power loom). 1790, British patent no. 1,747 (wool-combing machine).
    1790, British patent no. 1,787 (wool-combing machine).
    1792, British patent no. 1,876 (improved wool-combing machine and rope-making machine with cordelier).
    Further Reading
    M.Strickland, 1843, A Memoir of the Life, Writings and Mechanical Inventions of Edmund Cartwright, D.D., F.R.S., London (remains the fullest biography of Cartwright).
    Dictionary of National Biography (a good summary of Cartwright's life). For discussions of Cartwright's weaving inventions, see: A.Barlow, 1878, The History and Principles of Weaving by Hand and by Power, London; R.L. Hills, 1970, Power in the Industrial Revolution, Manchester. F.Nasmith, 1925–6, "Fathers of machine cotton manufacture", Transactions of the
    Newcomen Society 6.
    H.W.Dickinson, 1942–3, "A condensed history of rope-making", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 23.
    W.English, 1969, The Textile Industry, London (covers both his power loom and his wool -combing machine).
    RLH

    Biographical history of technology > Cartwright, Revd Edmund

  • 4 Scheutz, George

    [br]
    b. 23 September 1785 Jonkoping, Sweden
    d. 27 May 1873 Stockholm, Sweden
    [br]
    Swedish lawyer, journalist and self-taught engineer who, with his son Edvard Raphael Scheutz (b. 13 September 1821 Stockholm, Sweden; d. 28 January 1881 Stockholm, Sweden) constructed a version of the Babbage Difference Engine.
    [br]
    After early education at the Jonkoping elementary school and the Weixo Gymnasium, George Scheutz entered the University of Lund, gaining a degree in law in 1805. Following five years' legal work, he moved to Stockholm in 1811 to work at the Supreme Court and, in 1814, as a military auditor. In 1816, he resigned, bought a printing business and became editor of a succession of industrial and technical journals, during which time he made inventions relating to the press. It was in 1830 that he learned from the Edinburgh Review of Babbage's ideas for a difference engine and started to make one from wood, pasteboard and wire. In 1837 his 15-yearold student son, Edvard Raphael Scheutz, offered to make it in metal, and by 1840 they had a working machine with two five-digit registers, which they increased the following year and then added a printer. Obtaining a government grant in 1851, by 1853 they had a fully working machine, now known as Swedish Difference Engine No. 1, which with an experienced operator could generate 120 lines of tables per hour and was used to calculate the logarithms of the numbers 1 to 10,000 in under eighty hours. This was exhibited in London and then at the Paris Great Exhibition, where it won the Gold Medal. It was subsequently sold to the Dudley Observatory in Albany, New York, for US$5,000 and is now in a Chicago museum.
    In England, the British Registrar-General, wishing to produce new tables for insurance companies, and supported by the Astronomer Royal, arranged for government finance for construction of a second machine (Swedish Difference Engine No. 2). Comprising over 1,000 working parts and weighing 1,000 lb (450 kg), this machine was used to calculate over 600 tables. It is now in the Science Museum.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Member of the Swedish Academy of Sciences, Paris Exhibition Medal of Honour (jointly with Edvard) 1856. Annual pension of 1,200 marks per annum awarded by King Carl XV 1860.
    Bibliography
    1825, "Kranpunpar. George Scheutz's patent of 14 Nov 1825", Journal for Manufacturer och Hushallning 8.
    ellemême, Stockholm.
    Further Reading
    R.C.Archibald, 1947, "P.G.Scheutz, publicist, author, scientific mechanic and Edvard Scheutz, engineer. Biography and Bibliography", MTAC 238.
    U.C.Merzbach, 1977, "George Scheutz and the first printing calculator", Smithsonian
    Studies in History and Technology 36:73.
    M.Lindgren, 1990, Glory and Failure (the Difference Engines of Johan Muller, Charles Babbage and George \& Edvard Scheutz), Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Scheutz, George

  • 5 moneda

    f.
    1 coin (pieza).
    una moneda de diez pesos a ten peso coin
    moneda falsa counterfeit coin
    2 currency (finance) (divisa).
    moneda de curso legal legal tender
    moneda débil weak currency
    moneda extranjera foreign currency
    moneda fuerte strong currency
    moneda única single currency
    * * *
    1 (pieza) coin
    2 (divisa) currency
    \
    pagar a alguien con la misma moneda to pay somebody back in kind
    ser moneda corriente figurado to be commonplace
    moneda corriente legal tender
    moneda divisionaria/fraccionaria small change
    moneda falsa counterfeit money
    moneda fuerte strong currency
    moneda suelta small change
    * * *
    noun f.
    1) coin
    * * *
    SF
    1) (=pieza) coin

    moneda menuda, moneda suelta — small change

    2) [de un país] currency

    el precio es 1.000 pesos, moneda nacional — LAm the price is 1,000 pesos

    * * *
    1)
    a) ( pieza) coin
    b) ( de país) currency

    pagar con la misma moneda — to pay somebody back in kind

    2) la Moneda ( en Chi) Presidential Palace
    * * *
    = coin, currency [currencies, -pl.].
    Ex. It describes the annual hobby exchanges week for 6th grade pupils at King's Cristian School library, when pupils swap collectable items eg baseball cards, stamps, coins and shells.
    Ex. Although DOBIS/LIBIS must keep its accounts in a single currency, prices for documents may be entered in foreign currencies.
    ----
    * cambio de moneda = exchange rate, foreign exchange, currency exchange rate, market rate of exchange, foreign exchange rate, currency rate, rate of exchange, currency exchange.
    * casa de la moneda = mint.
    * coleccionista de monedas = coin collector.
    * fabricación de monedas = coinage, minting.
    * fracción de moneda = penny, coin denomination.
    * máquina que funciona con monedas = coin-operated machine.
    * moneda de cambio = bargaining chip.
    * moneda de curso legal = legal tender.
    * moneda de diez centavos = dime.
    * moneda electrónica = electric money.
    * moneda extranjera = foreign currency.
    * moneda nacional = local currency.
    * monedas = coinage.
    * moneda única = single currency.
    * papel moneda = banknote, paper money.
    * que funciona con monedas = coin-operated, coin-op.
    * * *
    1)
    a) ( pieza) coin
    b) ( de país) currency

    pagar con la misma moneda — to pay somebody back in kind

    2) la Moneda ( en Chi) Presidential Palace
    * * *
    = coin, currency [currencies, -pl.].

    Ex: It describes the annual hobby exchanges week for 6th grade pupils at King's Cristian School library, when pupils swap collectable items eg baseball cards, stamps, coins and shells.

    Ex: Although DOBIS/LIBIS must keep its accounts in a single currency, prices for documents may be entered in foreign currencies.
    * cambio de moneda = exchange rate, foreign exchange, currency exchange rate, market rate of exchange, foreign exchange rate, currency rate, rate of exchange, currency exchange.
    * casa de la moneda = mint.
    * coleccionista de monedas = coin collector.
    * fabricación de monedas = coinage, minting.
    * fracción de moneda = penny, coin denomination.
    * máquina que funciona con monedas = coin-operated machine.
    * moneda de cambio = bargaining chip.
    * moneda de curso legal = legal tender.
    * moneda de diez centavos = dime.
    * moneda electrónica = electric money.
    * moneda extranjera = foreign currency.
    * moneda nacional = local currency.
    * monedas = coinage.
    * moneda única = single currency.
    * papel moneda = banknote, paper money.
    * que funciona con monedas = coin-operated, coin-op.

    * * *
    (Palacio de) la Moneda (↑ moneda a1)
    A
    1 (pieza) coin
    una moneda de dos euros a two-euro coin
    colecciona monedas antiguas she collects old coins
    una moneda conmemorativa a commemorative coin
    2 (de un país) currency
    una moneda estable a stable currency
    acuñar moneda to mint money
    pagar con la misma moneda to pay sb back in kind
    Compuestos:
    soft currency
    (de un país) currency; (cantidad de moneda) currency in circulation
    convertible currency
    currency
    el dólar es moneda corriente allí the currency there is the dollar
    ser moneda corriente to be an everyday occurrence
    soft currency
    legal tender
    reserve currency
    ( Fin) fractional currency; (dinero suelto) correct o exact change
    legal tender
    single currency
    single European currency
    B
    la Moneda (en Chi) Presidential Palace
    * * *

     

    moneda sustantivo femenino
    1
    a) ( pieza) coin;

    ◊ una moneda de cinco pesos a five-peso coin o piece



    2

    moneda sustantivo femenino
    1 coin
    2 (de un país) currency
    ♦ Locuciones: pagar con la misma moneda, to give sb a dose of their own medicine
    papel moneda, bank notes
    ' moneda' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    acuñar
    - cambiar
    - cambio
    - cara
    - circular
    - cobre
    - convertible
    - corona
    - cotización
    - cruz
    - curso
    - ducado
    - dura
    - duro
    - emisión
    - emitir
    - franca
    - franco
    - introducir
    - marco
    - me
    - papel
    - queztal
    - recuerdo
    - reverso
    - suelta
    - suelto
    - tálero
    - vellón
    - águila
    - borde
    - débil
    - devaluar
    - echar
    - florín
    - lado
    - leyenda
    - quinto
    - revalorizar
    - rodar
    - sello
    - sol
    - tostón
    - único
    - volado
    English:
    back
    - bit
    - coin
    - counterfeit
    - currency
    - dime
    - edge
    - euro
    - face
    - flip side
    - head
    - hold out
    - kind
    - legal tender
    - mint
    - money
    - nickel
    - paper money
    - piece
    - poof
    - pound
    - quarter
    - reverse
    - side
    - single currency
    - strength
    - strike
    - strong
    - tender
    - toss
    - twopence
    - yen
    - flip
    - legal
    - penny
    - slip
    * * *
    moneda nf
    1. [pieza] coin;
    una moneda de diez pesos a ten peso coin;
    pagar a alguien con o [m5] en la misma moneda to pay sb back in kind;
    RP
    y monedas: costó 400 y monedas it cost just over 400
    moneda falsa counterfeit coin;
    moneda fraccionaria fractional money
    2. [divisa] currency
    moneda convertible convertible currency;
    moneda corriente legal tender;
    ser moneda corriente to be commonplace;
    moneda de curso legal legal tender;
    moneda débil weak currency;
    moneda extranjera foreign currency;
    moneda fiduciaria fiat money;
    moneda fraccionaria fractional money;
    moneda fuerte strong currency;
    moneda nacional national o local currency;
    UE moneda única single currency
    3.
    La Moneda [en Chile] = Chile's presidential palace
    LA MONEDA
    The “Palacio de la Moneda”, also known simply as La Moneda, is the name of the Chilean Presidential Palace and the seat of the government in the capital, Santiago. Originally built under Spanish colonial rule as the Royal Mint (1805), it became the presidential palace in 1846. It was severely damaged on September 11 1973, when president Salvador Allende attempted to resist the military coup led by General Augusto Pinochet, though the palace was eventually rebuilt, and has now been opened to the public.
    * * *
    f
    1 coin;
    ser moneda corriente fig be an everyday occurrence;
    en la misma moneda fig pay s.o. back in their own coin
    2 ( divisa) currency
    * * *
    moneda nf
    1) : coin
    2) : money, currency
    * * *
    1. (pieza) coin
    2. (unidad) currency

    Spanish-English dictionary > moneda

  • 6 Brassey, Thomas

    [br]
    b. 7 November 1805 Buerton, Cheshire, England
    d. 8 December 1870 St Leonards-on-Sea, East Sussex, England
    [br]
    English railway construction contractor.
    [br]
    Brassey was initially a surveyor and road builder; his first railway contract was for ten miles (16 km) of the Grand Junction Railway in 1835, for which the engineer was Joseph Locke, with whom Brassey became closely associated. Gaining a justified reputation for integrity, Brassey built much of the London \& Southampton, Chester \& Crewe, and Sheffield Ashton-under-Lyne \& Manchester Railways, the Le Havre \& Rouen Railway and many others: by the late 1840s he was employing some 75,000 workers on his contracts. Subsequently, as sole contractor or with partners, Brassey built railways in many European countries, and in Canada, India, Australia and other countries. Between 1848 and 1861 he constructed 2,374 miles (3,820 km) of railway.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Croix de la Légion d'honneur (France). Order of the Iron Crown (Austria).
    Further Reading
    Arthur Helps, 1872, Life and Labours of Mr Brassey, reissued 1969, Augustus Kelley (this is the noted biography).
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Brassey, Thomas

  • 7 By, Lieutenant-Colonel John

    SUBJECT AREA: Canals
    [br]
    b. 7 (?) August 1779 Lambeth, London, England
    d. 1 February 1836 Frant, Sussex, England
    [br]
    English Engineer-in-Charge of the construction of the Rideau Canal, linking the St Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers in Canada.
    [br]
    Admitted in 1797 as a Gentleman Cadet in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, By was commissioned on 1 August 1799 as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery, but was soon transferred to the Royal Engineers. Posted to Plymouth upon the development of the fortifications, he was further posted to Canada, arriving there in August 1802.
    In 1803 By was engaged in canal work, assisting Captain Bruyères in the construction of a short canal (1,500 ft (460 m) long) at the Cascades on the Grand, now the Ottawa, River. In 1805 he was back at the Cascades repairing ice damage caused during the previous winter. He was promoted Captain in 1809. Meanwhile he worked on the fortifications of Quebec and in 1806–7 he built a scale model of the Citadel, which is now in the National War Museum of Canada. He returned to England in 1810 and served in Portugal in 1811. Back in England at the end of the year, he was appointed Royal Engineer Officer in charge at the Waltham Abbey Gunpowder Works on 1 January 1812 and later planned the new Small Arms Factory at Enfield; both works were on the navigable River Lee.
    In the post-Napoleonic period Major By, as he then was, retired on half-pay but was promoted to Lieu tenant-Colonel on 2 December 1824. Eighteen months later, in March 1826, he returned to Canada on active duty to build the Rideau Canal. This was John By's greatest work. It was conceived after the American war of 1812–14 as a connection for vessels to reach Kingston and the Great Lakes from Montreal while avoiding possible attack from the United States forces. Ships would pass up the Ottawa River using the already-constructed locks and bypass channels and then travel via a new canal cut through virgin forest southwards to the St Lawrence at Kingston. By based his operational headquarters at the Ottawa River end of the new works and in a forest clearing he established a small settlement. Because of the regard in which By was held, this settlement became known as By town. In 1855, long after By's death, the settlement was designated by Queen Victoria as capital of United Canada (which was to become a self-governing Dominion in 1867) and renamed Ottawa; as a result of the presence of the national government, the growth of the town accelerated greatly.
    Between 1826–7 and 1832 the Rideau Canal was constructed. It included the massive engineering works of Jones Falls Dam (62 ft 6 in. (19 m) high) and 47 locks. By exercised an almost paternal care over those employed under his direction. The canal was completed in June 1832 at a cost of £800,000. By was summoned back to London to face virulent and unjust criticism from the Treasury. He was honoured in Canada but vilified by the British Government.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    R.F.Leggett, 1982, John By, Historical Society of Canada.
    —1976, Canals of Canada, Newton Abbot: David \& Charles.
    —1972, Rideau Waterway, Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
    Bernard Pothier, 1978, "The Quebec Model", Canadian War Museum Paper 9, Ottawa: National Museums of Canada.
    JHB

    Biographical history of technology > By, Lieutenant-Colonel John

  • 8 Chappe, Claude

    SUBJECT AREA: Telecommunications
    [br]
    b. 25 December 1763 Brulon, France
    d. 23 January 1805 Paris, France
    [br]
    French engineer who invented the semaphore visual telegraph.
    [br]
    Chappe began his studies at the Collège de Joyeuse, Rouen, and completed them at La Flèche. He was educated for the church with the intention of becoming an Abbé Commendataire, but this title did not in fact require him to perform any religious duties. He became interested in natural science and amongst other activities he carried out experiments with electrically charged soap bubbles.
    When the bénéfice was suppressed in 1781 he returned home and began to devise a system of telegraphic communication. With the help of his three brothers, particularly Abraham, and using an old idea, in 1790 he made a visual telegraph with suspended pendulums to relay coded messages over a distance of half a kilometre. Despite public suspicion and opposition, he presented the idea to the Assemblée Nationale on 22 May 1792. No doubt due to the influence of his brother, Ignace, a member of the Assemblée Nationale, the idea was favourably received, and on 1 April 1793 it was referred to the National Convention as being of military importance. As a result, Chappe was given the title of Telegraphy Engineer and commissioned to construct a semaphore (Gk. bearing a sign) link between Paris and Lille, a distance of some 240 km (150 miles), using twenty-two towers. Each station contained two telescopes for observing the adjacent towers, and each semaphore consisted of a central beam supporting two arms, whose positions gave nearly two hundred possible arrangements. Hence, by using a code book as a form of lookup table, Chappe was able to devise a code of over 8,000 words. The success of the system for communication during subsequent military conflicts resulted in him being commissioned to extend it with further links, a work that was continued by his brothers after his suicide during a period of illness and depression. Providing as it did an effective message speed of several thousand kilometres per hour, the system remained in use until the mid-nineteenth century, by which time the electric telegraph had become well established.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    R.Appleyard, 1930, Pioneers of Electrical Communication.
    International Telecommunications Union, 1965, From Semaphore to Satellite, Geneva.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Chappe, Claude

  • 9 Young, James

    SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology
    [br]
    b. 13 July 1811 Glasgow, Scotland
    d. 13 May 1883 Wemyss Bay, Scotland
    [br]
    Scottish chemist and pioneer petroleum technologist.
    [br]
    Young's early education took place in the evenings, after the day's work in his father's joinery. From 1830 he studied chemistry at the evening classes in Glasgow given by the distinguished Scottish chemist Thomas Graham (1805–69) and soon afterwards became Graham's assistant. When Graham moved to University College London in 1837, Young accompanied him.
    From 1839 he was employed in the chemical industry, first with James Muspratt at St Helens, Lancashire, and from 1843 with Tennant \& Company in Manchester. In 1848 his attention was drawn to an oil seepage in a mine at Alfreton, Derbyshire, of some 300 gallons per day; he set up his own works there to extract an oil that could be used for lighting and lubrication. When this source of oil was exhausted, three years later, Young moved to Lothian in Scotland. By distillation, he extracted oil from the oil-shale deposits there and thus founded the Scottish oil-shale industry: he obtained a high yield of paraffin oil for lighting and heating, and was a pioneer in the use of chemical methods in extracting and treating oil. In 1866 he disposed of his company for no less than £400,000. Young's other activities included measuring the speed of light by Fizeau's method and giving financial support to the expeditions of David Livingstone, who had been a fellow student in Glasgow.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    FRS 1873.
    Further Reading
    Obituary, 1884, Journal of the Chemical Society 45:630.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Young, James

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